(1.1) Personal Names

◄ ►

This is just a bit of fun on my part. An attempt to understand the structure of the subject, through what has been written, sprinkled with illuminating quotes, and put it into some kind of order. It is not intended as a classification or taxonomy – that is way beyond me. It will gradually grow as I learn more –just like the result of my interaction with lemon drizzle cake .
I did keep these pages closed for some time as I was wary of breaking copyright: however, I understand that one may quote so many words for the purposes of criticism and review, so long as citations are provided. I hope that anyone whose work I have quoted will not object, as it is my intention to highlight their contribution to the subject knowledge. Fuller references at the bottom of the section
Preface
Studying the documents The study of personal names is known as anthroponymy When studying a medieval list of names, an anthroponomist will ask questions about · the provenance of the list ? · the socio-economic background of the names? · In what geographical area was the list compiled? · Is it representative? Is any category (e.g. women) unusually under-represented ? · The comparative ratio of type of name o Numbers of single names (i.e. what we term forenames, but in this context are better termed nomen, plural nomina) o Number of names with a qualifier (usually an unstable byname) , usually called a cognomen · Linguistic origin of the name · Type of name e.g. nickname, occupational · Is the name Latinised or expressed in the vernacular ?
The historical transformation of naming patterns “The transformation of naming patterns in the period 1075-1225 highlights a central fact about names: they can be chosen. Each generation makes new choices and in these choices they are influenced by ever-changing fashions and interests” Bartlett (2000) ‘England under the Norman and Angevin Kings’ p 540 “..the process of naming is in itself an act of considerable agency and purpose. It is inherently intentional and is an expression of wider allegiances and associations, if not identities” Postles (2006) Naming the people of England, p 28 “Shortly before 1250 the process was more or less completed by which insular (Old English and Old Norse) personal names were largely displaced by names introduced by Normans and their followers from the near continent, such as Bretons, Flemings and Picards. In origin the new name stock was partly Continental Germanic, of a West Frankish type, partly Romance (including many saints’ names) and partly from the Biblical languages, Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek (via Latin), not to mention the lesser contributions from Scandinavian and Celtic languages. All the names were expressed in Old French form and they came with ready-made hypocorisms or pet-forms, usually consisting of a short form of the name compounded with a diminutive suffix” P McClure Nomina 26 (2003), p 93 Pre-Conquest name-forms (Insular names) · West Germanic or Old English Personal names · Anglo-Scandinavian (i.e. indirect West Germanic) Insular names had 3 main forms · Compounded or dithematic forms (combining 2 elements, prototheme and deuterotheme) e.g. Leofwine, Godwine (element ‘wine’ = friend) (Protothemes are in principle common between the sexes. Deuterothemes express gender.) · Uncompounded · Pet-forms (elisions of dithematic names) Post-Conquest name forms · Continental-Germanic ( a body of about 500 names) e.g. William, Henry, Robert · Brittonic (or Middle Breton forms) e.g. Alan, Brian , Joel · Norman-Scandinavian · Use of Saints’ and Biblical names (from 12^th c) The displacement was characterised by concentration i.e. a reliance of a small number of heavily-used names. This narrowing in the range of especially male nomina accelerated considerably by the late 13^th c. By 1300, “The most frequent eight forenames now comprised 77-87 per cent of all taxpayers in the lay subsidies of various counties” Postles (2006) Naming the people of England, p 60 Further research: · Regional variation in the number of names (i.e. nomina). In the Lay subsidies, these normally vary between 46 and 72, though there are higher counts in Devon, Northumbria and Sussex · Concentration of specific names (nomina), e.g. Adam is prevalent in West Riding in the Lay subsidies. In London, in the early 14^th c. the proportion of those named John or William reached 40% Postles (2006) Naming the people of England p
Questions But who did the choosing : Men or women? Were the cultural influences the same – whatever the social level – nobility, burgesses, unfree peasantry etc, or geographical area ? “…in that critical transformation of naming during the long twelfth century, some acceded to the new traditions of the Normans, Bretons and Flemish, others resisted those introductions to preserve the legacy of the old, and yet others embraced a “hybrid” solution, naming one child in the insular tradition and the other in the “new” fashion….The questions which must be confronted therefore are: what were the motives for this attribution of divergent name forms within kinships; and how frequent were such situations? ” Postles (2006) Naming the people of England, p 4 As Postles emphasises, the surprising fact is not that there was a complete overturn in the culture of naming, but that it actually took so long to complete, when nominally it could have been achieved in 1 or 2 generations. “The direction of new forms of name was the same – towards concentration. Whereas, however new forms became extremely narrow in active use, through the twelfth century insular forms exhibited a remarkably wide range for names that were supposedly being supplanted” Postles (2006) Naming the people of England, p 17 The survival of insular names amongst those of middling means into the 13^th c., contrasts with the usual explanation that the new names percolated down from the Norman over-Lords, or were taken up immediately for social advantage. However, the greatest incidence of residual insular naming seems to have been amongst those lowest on the social scale = the free and unfree peasantry There are numerous examples of secular clergy with insular name forms in the twelfth century, and this may have influenced the persistence of such names amongst others (and the bearers were not consistently insignificant people. . But the situation is more complex · Fathers with adopted the new C-G names, then reverting to an insular name for a son · Siblings with a name from each name tradition Especially in the “North” a dual naming tradition seems to have survived into the 12^th c. –indicating that that was then no perceived disadvantage or dishonour in reverting to an insular name
Baptism Before the end of the twelfth century. “the child arrived at the church door with an existing name; name-giving was not part of the baptismal ceremony. From the early thirteenth century the child’s name was given as it was raised from the font by the principal godparent” Postles (2006) Naming the people of England, p 50 Did the new role of the priest in the naming process encourage · the use of a higher number of saints’ names ? · or was the role of the godparent more influential? · or was the need for patrilinear naming paramount?
Latinisations “Investigation of colloquial name usages in medieval England is hampered by the pervasive Latinisation of formal records, coupled with a dearth of naturalistic vernacular ones” and “The better-drawn a document , the more thoroughly every element that could be Latinised was Latinised. This applied especially to expressions of kinship, and so now hinders attempts to analyse their history” [CHEL( ) p] A patronymic or metronymic by-name was expressed in 4 ways; initially in Latin translation, but increasingly reflecting the vernacular form. 1. Asyndetic apposition of the father’s name Henricus Gilberd Asyndetic apposition means the juxtaposition of two personal names –that refer to the same person- without the use of any preposition (le, de, atte etc) or linking device (filia, relict etc) 2. Phrases in sunu/dohter 3. Possessive genitive Thomas Alani, Hugh Johannis There are instances where it is evident that the genitival form is an elision of the filius one e.g. Laurence turstani alias Laurence filius turstani Postles (2001) 4. The filius-formula (but also including filia, uxor, relict etc) These forms were not exclusive. In the same document, the same person might be referred to in more than 1 way:- Ricardus Steuene (an appositional form =Richard Stephen) and as Ricardus filius Stephani. The filius could also be placed after the referring name i.e. Ricardus Stephani filius, though before is the norm. The name need not necessarily be a patronymic; filius is used with occupational and nicknames, too “At times a confusing array of Latin forms may be used to represent the name of one and the same person : Tengvik pointed out many years ago that a Domesday book tenant named as Robert Flavus was apparently the same man as the Robert Albus, Robert Blancardus and Robert Blundus mentioned in the same record, all these various epithets alluding to flaxen hair” [McKinley 1991, p 2] Problems: · The meaning of the Latin words employed is clear, but instances of vernacular equivalents are lacking · The same quite common Latin word employed to translate several vernacular names i.e. is Albus might be used to cover the vernacular individual forms of White, Blundell, Blount or even Fairfax · Some Latinized forms seem based on false folk-etymologies e,g, Quatremars –‘four marks’- Latinized as Quattuor Maris [McKinley 1991, p 2-3]
The filius formula One of the most commonly-used Latinisations used to express a relationship was the term filius . What exactly does use of filius imply ? 1. Was it an attempt to transcribe or reflect an increasing vernacular trend towards a stable surname. If so, which? For example does Johannes filius Willelmi intend to convey the colloquial name phrase -John William or John Williams, or maybe John Williamson? 2. Or is the ubiquitous filius formula just a scribal convention necessitated by administrative demands? [and filius can sometimes signify ‘grandson’, or perhaps even ‘great grandson’ in administrative recording] Viewpoint 1 McKinley felt that the use of filius covered much more than just vernacular names ending in s or son. He pointed out that the usage of filius in the 13^th century was far greater than the existence of –son names at later dates. Viewpoint 2 However, a more recent view proposes that by the late 13^th century, the filius-formula only translated vernacular names in -s and –son . [ Turville-Petrie (1998)] Certainly, by the early 14^th century, an analysis of the lay subsidy rolls suggests that there was a gradation in the distribution of –son forms (strong in the north, weaker in the south, with an intermingling in the Midlands) that was equivalent to the use of the filius form . [ Postles 2001, p ] Gradually, the Latinisation of name forms declined. For instance, Postles proposes that by the late 13^th century, in the English southern counties, the incidence of latin forms was low. He argues that in these counties, the appositional or genitival forms would now be directly expressed in the vernacular. But the decline was not uniform. He argues that in northern counties, vernacular patronymics and metronymics ending in son or doghter continued to be Latinised till a later date than the south. [ Postles (2001) ] Certainly, by the late 13^th century for Oxfordshire, “in the Hundred Rolls the great majority of persons mentioned, whether bond or free, are provided with surnames or by-names of some kind or another. It is rare to find anyone , either without a by-name at all, or referred to merely as the son of some other person whose personal name only is given” . [Mckinley 1977, p ]
Latinisations of Personal names : some examples “For the most part the Latin forms were produced by adding –a to the female name and –us to a male name and these were then declined like ordinary nouns” [Redmonds 2004a, p ]
Adam (genitive Ade) = Adam Alicia = Alice Andreas= Andrew Dionisius (feminine Dionisia) = Denis Egidius (feminine Egidia) = Giles Galfridus = Geoffrey Hugo= Hugh		Jacobus= James Johannes = John Margareta = Margaret Petrus = Peter Radulfus= Ralph Ricardus = Richard Thomas (genitive Thome) = Thomas Willelmus = William
For a fuller listing see C.T. Martin ‘The Record Interpreter’
Vernacular form 3 styles of patronymics/metronymics · Asyndetic e.g. Rickard · Simple genitives e.g. Richards · Genitive phrases e.g. Richardson. The asyndetic form existed up to c. 1300. From 1300 onwards, suffixal forms of -s and –son were increasingly frequent. Most present-day names in –son were formed post-1300, and were composed of baptismal names in favour post-1300. “…most first names had vernacular pronunciations as well as pet forms and diminutives, and that these can all be masked by the formal use of Latin” [Redmonds 2004b, p113]
Form
Unmodified /Uninflected	Examples
“Many surnames formed from personal names without any prefix or suffix are derived from personal names which were either disused or rare by 1300. ..Most of these were Old English or Scandinavian personal names” This type of unmodified surname was common “among the better-off sections of town populations from the 12^th century onwards, and among small freeholders in the countryside,” and probably fairly common among bondmen too [Mackinley 1990, p ]	Common before 1300 in all areas:- Alexander, Allen, Andrew, Austin, Bartholomew, Brian(t), Clement, Ellis, Gilbert, Goddard, Go(o)dwin, Hammond, Humphrey, Jarvis or Jervis or Gervase, Lambert, Laurence, Martin, Matthew, Mitchell, Osborne (though can be a placename), Payne or Pain, and Vincent Old English examples:-Allnutt, Allward, Brightiff, Edrich, Elphick,Godwin,Woolridge Old Scandinavian examples:- Allgood, Ingold, Kettle, Tooley, Tovey, Thurkill, Post-Conquest examples: Ansell, Baldry, Durrant, Goddard, Hammond Gaelic : Duncan, Findlay
Modified forms:-
-Genitival (Possessive) Ø See also: other genitival forms e.g. occupational Parsons , or topographical, Mills, or relationship Cousins “The genitive –s form was by no means exclusively patronymic. It could signify other relationships. A high proportion of those with such names in fourteenth century East Anglia were women, often widows, whose –s names refer to their relationships to their husbands, or former husbands, for example Alice Thomys (widow of Thom) and Katherine Wilkins. Others were servants, for example Adam les Prestes, Diot del Dawkins or Thomas at Adamys” Wilson (1998) p 128	The possessive form appears to originally have been the name of “small free tenants, bond tenants, and the less affluent members of town populations”, who adopted surnames fairly late. (Mckinley) This form was rare before 1270, but was numerous by 1350. Its heartland was the SW Midlands (Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Herefordshire). It remained relatively rare in the North of England From the 16^th century, this form became widely adopted in Wales where “ the addition of ‘s’ seems to form a substitute for ap, so that it is not surprising that ‘s’ is not usually added to the class of names in which ap/ab have become absorbed (Bowen, Prosser, Pugh)” . However, exceptions are found in the English border counties with such names as Bevans and Beavans appearing in some quantity” [ Rowlands1996, p ]
-s, -es -s as -x	Williams, Jones Rix, Dix
-Plural forms -kins -sons	Jenkins -This form (personal name + sons) is scarce, and mainly found in the SW Midlands. It seems to have arisen through the migration of –son names into areas where –s forms predominated e.g. Johnsons, Robertsons
Pet forms Viewpoint 1 Pet forms seem to have been used to express affection or status, especially in areas where the root personal name was frequent. For example, Adekyn Bron of Ossett was the son of Adam Bron in 1286 , and seems to have been used in the sense of ‘junior’ This practice “may help to explain the origin of other characteristic north country surnames, such as Atkinson, Hopkinson, Jenkinson and Wilkinson” [Redmonds 2004b, p114] Viewpoint 2 Pet-forms may have been used as a form of mockery by Anglo-Normans, and then taken up, as nicknames are, by those native ‘social inferiors’ who had adopted Norman ‘names’ (suggested by P McClure in Nomina 26 and 28) The large number of pet forms (hypocoristics) of personal names reveals the playfulness and inventiveness of the medieval mind. Pet forms are manifested in 3 main ways:- 1. Abbreviation – simplification through the removal of a linguistic segment. This can be the deletion of a segment of any length, and can occur in any position e.g. Nicol>Col, Matilde>Til 2. Extension through the addition of a hypocoristic suffix to either the full personal name or a diminutive or pet form of it. see the suffixes below. 3. Substitution. For example through the playful substitution of vowels and consonants, or the addition of a prosthetic rhyming consonant e.g Roger>Hodge, Richard>Dick, Agnes>An>Nan, Isabel>Ib>Tib [ P McClure Nomina 21 (1998)] “Names in -s or -son made particular use of hypocoristic forms. In a sample from Norfolk in 1330, 70% of names ending in –s stemmed from hypocoristics” [Wilson (1998) p ] The problem “…we can be sure that baptismal names were used in a wide variety of hypocoristic or pet forms, especially by ordinary folk. The problem is to know which hypocorisms belong to which baptismal names.” [P McClure Nomina 21 (1998), p 102]
-Diminutives-English Examples –	Nicholas > diminutive ‘Col’ > surname form- Collins Gilbert> diminutive ‘Gib’ > surname form- Gibson Geoffrey> diminutive ‘Gep’ > surname form- Gibson Isabel> diminutives ‘Tibot/Ibot’ > surname form- Ibbotson [Redmonds 2004a, p]
[Sub-types: with or without suffixes] Diminutives without suffix are relatively rare Hypocoristic suffixes were often appended to diminutives of personal names	Hudd, Hobb Adkins Dawson: Paradoxically, in England derived from Ralph, but in Scotland from David [source Hough, 2003 citing MacClure]
-Diminutives-Gaelic Class ‘with-suffix’ under latter element? -Diminutives-Welsh	Beddoes<Bedo<Maredudd Gittins<Guto<Gruffydd
-Affixes --Prefixes (of descent) Ab/Ap- [Welsh] - + Post Conquest personal name - +Welsh personal name	“In the system of mutation of the Welsh language mab becomes fab, and the initial soft f sound (English v) was dropped in normal speech…The general rule which evolved was to use ab before vowels and ap before consonants, but finds many breaches in actual use in records” [Rowlands 1996, p8 ] However, Ap or Ab did not agglutinate if the initial letter was unsuitable, as in the cases of Gruffydd, Llewellyn and Morgan The distribution of ap or ab surnames “shows a heavy emphasis towards the border counties of Brecon and Radnor where collectively they are held by as many as 30% of the population” (from a survey of marriages in Wales 1813-1837) [Rowlands 2006, p108] Probert, Pritchard, Prosser, Prandle Price (Ap Rhys), Bowen (Ap Owen)
Fitz- [ Continental-Germanic]	Fitz is the Anglo-French equivalent of filius. However, it was used only in Normandy- not the rest of France. The second element is usually a post-conquest personal name. They were mostly originally the names of landowners of Norman origin.e.g. Fitz Alan, FitzWalter The use spread to other social classes, and it was in current use to about c1300. Some forms (FitzRoy, FitzJames, FitzClarence) were late (17^th-19^th century) bestowals on the natural children of Charles II, James II, and Willam IV, repectively
Gil + Saint’s name/ Religious name Ø Gil + occupational term	[Gaelic prefix –gille = servant of] Devotional names - often prefixed to the name of the saint on whose day, the child was born - Gillies [Highland, Western Isles]< gille Iosa ‘servant of Jesus’
Mac, Mc, M’ q Scottish or Irish origin? Ø Mac + Occupational term q Many Mac- names reflect an association with a clan, and are therefore may not be not patronymic -Mac + Gaelic personal name -Mac + Scandinavian personal name -Mac + English personal name -Mac + Gaelicisation -Mac + Anglicisation -dropped Mac (IOM typifies) -Mac+ pet form -Mac + Saint’s name	This group accounts for about 20% of Scotland’s surnames (source: Dorward 1998: 116). 13 are in the top 100 names in Scotland Clan names in the top 100 – MacDonald, MacGregor, MacIntosh, MacIntyre, MacKay, MacKenzie, MacLean, MacLeod, MacMillam MacEwen, McFadden MacIver, MacManus, MacLeod MacJames, MacWilliam Thomas>Mac Támhais>MacTavish MacAmbois>MacCambridge, MacShuibne>MacQueen MacOwen>Keown,; MacCurtin>Curtin Scottish examples:- - Kennedy < mac Kenedi, - Cowen < MacOwen<mac ghille Chomghain - Keddie (Shetland) < MacKeddie <mac Adaigh Macdickon, Macgibbon, Macjock MacBride =devotee of Saint Bridget= native Arran surname,otherwise an Irish import
Mab-, Mag-, Map-	-[Welsh] In the lay subsidy lists of 1292-3 for Merioneth, 53% of taxpayers bore patronymics” using Mab or Ap
Ni	Daughter of [Irish] e.g. Maire Nic an Gaill
O’ [Irish]	-
Qu+vowel	Manx
Verch	Welsh; daughter of e.g. Nest verch Madog. “Verch becomes ferch in modern orthography; it was often shortened to vch or vz in documents and appears also as ach and ych.” [ Rowlands1996] This prefix- like ap- could adhere to patronyms Critchett< verch Richard Kedward< verch Edward But beware similar abbreviated Mac forms
--Suffixes “Shortly before 1250 the process was more or less completed by which insular (Old English and Old Norse) personal names were largely displaced by names introduced by Normans and their followers from the near continent, such as Bretons, Flemings and Picards. In origin the new name stock was partly Continental Germanic, of a West Frankish type, partly Romance (including many saints’ names) and partly from the Biblical languages, Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek (via Latin), not to mention the lesser contributions from Scandinavian and Celtic languages. All the names were expressed in Old French form and they came with ready-made hypocorisms or pet-forms, usually consisting of a short form of the name compounded with a diminutive suffix” [P McClure Nomina 26 (2003), p 93] Some of these suffixes apply also to relationship surnames
Hypocorisms (Pet forms)
-Pet forms –Single suffix The majority of suffixes are Old French, but there is also a small but significant Germanic component, mainly Flemish. No Old English suffix is yet evidenced as a hypocoristic suffix to an Anglo-Norman name. “For a twelfth-century Englishman the social advantages of bearing a ‘Norman’ Christian name would be embarrassingly compromised by the addition of an English hypocoristic suffix” [P McClure Nomina 28, p 33]
-ate, att(e)
-chon [Northern Old French]	Huchon
-cok and –cus “To Norman ears, the Englishness of –cok and –cus, together with their resemblance to Flemish –kin, can only have signified that the bearers of such names were not ‘one of us’…were they “invented by the Normans, not for use toward their own kind, but to mock and belittle those English who, in increasing numbers during the twelfth century, bore ‘Norman; names” ? P McClure Nomina 28, p 33-4 -cok and –cus look like twin form § -cok= widespread and popular as a pet-form for male names (but not exclusively) § -cus= less widespread, rarer examples, possibly commoner with women’s names [P McClure Nomina 28 (2005) , p 30]
-cok [-cock , -cox,]	Reaney and Wilson cite as head-forms:- Adcock, Alcock, Bad(t)cock, Bawcock, Beacock, Dilcock, Elcock, Godcock, Hancock, Haycock, Heacock, (Hickox), Hitchcock, Hullcock, Jeffcock, Litcook, Lowcock, Maycock, Moorcock, Mycock, Palcock, Pilcock, Pitcock, Raincock, Silcock, Simcock, Tilcok, Wadcock, Walcock, Watcock, Whitecock, and Wilcock [Cited in McClure Nomina 28 (2005) p 7] “Middle English –cok first appears in the late-twelfth century, of uncertain parentage and ambiguous morphology. The earliest recorded examples of its use in forenames are of the late-twelfth and early thirteenth centuries: Salecoc the Jew (1193) and Alecoc or Alekok (1204)” [P McClure Nomina 28 (2005) p 6] “..the earliest examples of hypocoristic –cok occur just before and just after 1200, and are probably from Old French personal names or Middle English versions of them. So too, I believe are all but a handful of those that are recorded thereafter” [P McClure Nomina 28 (2005) p 18] Must have been coined in England as no evidence if use in Flanders or north eastern France § Reaney derives this suffix from OE cocc ‘cock, rooster, male bird’ and by usage for a ‘pert servant’, but McClure points out that there is no evidence to support the ‘servant’ hypothesis § Ewen sees it as an extension of the Old English suffix -oc. However no other OE suffix is known to have transferred to continental names, and it is such names that to be found as the earliest examples, and overwhelming found with continental names. “On the evidence that we have it looks as though the suffix belongs with continental rather than insular names, in which case we need to find a way of explaining how a suffix of apparently Germanic or Anglo-Saxon composition came to be invented for use with an essentially Norman name-stock” [P McClure Nomina 28 (2005) p 23] “that whereas Old English –oc was used exclusively with men’s names, Middle English –cok was used in the continental manner with names of women as well as men, although predominantly the latter” [P McClure Nomina 28 (2005) p 23] sometimes “There is confusion with the toponymic –cote. From the 13^th century onwards, scribes often wrote a –c- like a – t , and vice-versa , such that –cot and –kot are impossible to distinguish from –coc and –koc (in printed sources )” [P Macclure Nomina 26 (2003) , p116 ] q or nicknames from birds – Heathcock, Peacock, Woodcock, Grewcock
-cus	Amecus, Edecusa, Ricus, Wilcus McClure gives evidence that this is a Middle English hypocoristic suffix. Must have been coined in England as no evidence if use in Flanders or north eastern France § Alternative 1: an OE suffix for use with native English names Possibly a double diminutive , -k-us, and modelled on OE –us forms as pet forms of women’s names § Alternative 2 “ to suppose that –cus, like –cok, was originally coined for use with Anglo-French rather than native English names” i.e. for hypocorising the new names that were introduced after the Norman Conquest, through re-modelling the existing OE –us forms. Further, many –cus forms also present as –kin forms e.g. Alcus/Alkin [McClure Nomina 28 (2005) ,pp 29, 32]
-cot [Picard]	Sarrecote = a petform of ME Sarre (Sarah)?, Alcot (pet form of names like Alice, Alexander and Alan) Simcot = pet-form of Simon “It is of Picard origin and belongs to a group of hybrid double suffixes, including –quet and –coul, in which Germanic –ik has been extended by the addition of a French diminutive. The suffix was used in Picardy and Flanders to form pet-names like Hanecot (for Old French Jehan) and Wilecot (for Northern Old French William).” [P McClure Nomina 26 (2003), p 115] q Often from the mid 13^th c onwards, scribes write a –t- like a –c- (and vice versa, that it is often impossible to determine whether what looks like a –cot and –kot respectively, is in fact a –coc and –koc (variant spellings of –coq) [P Macclure Nomina 26 (2003) , p116 ]
-el [Old French]	Simonel, Pagnell
-en	This (pet form + -en) originated in the Midlands. Reaney found examples in Warwickshire,Worcestershire,Glos; Mckinley found in west Oxfordshire. Ed(d)en, and Hawken are possible examples
-et(e), -ett(e) [Old French]	Jonet, Luckett (<Luke), Garnett q -Exception: ett can be a dialectic contraction of ‘head’ e.g, Dowsett<Douce Head (Sweet head) q Exception: Naldrett is a topographical term- “at the alder grove”
-ie, -y	“the construction of hypocoristic forms in –ie is characteristic of Scottish English, especially in the north east” [Hough 2003, p37] Examples: Beattie, Dickie, Finnie, Petrie, Rennie, Ritchie
-in [Old French]	Robin, Rawlin
- ing(s) [Old English]
-it(e), -tt(e)	-
-ke [Flemish?]	Hanke, Silke · Viewpoint 1: these may be contractions of names in –kin and –cok · Viewpoint 2: a full Flemish pet-form The prime example of this form is Jakke (=Jack) “..discussed Lindeman’s evidence that Jack, Middle English Jakke, was not of English origin but derived from the hypocoristic usage of medieval Picardy and Flanders. I set out evidence to show that the suffix –ke can be found in other Middle English personal names and that it is one of a group of Flemish and Franco-Flemish hypocoristic suffixes, including –kin, -man and –cot, that were introduced into England after the Norman Conquest along with numerous Old French personal names and their pet-forms” [McClure Nomina 28 (2005) p 5] Puzzle: the abundance of the name Jakke is out of proportion to the influence and number of Flemings and Picards
-kin [Flemish]	Wilkin “According to both Reaney and McKinley, its (-kin) first appearance is among the names of Flemings in the mid-12^th century” [Padel 2003, p ] Widespread use of –kin pet-forms not evident till after 1250, reaching peak in later 14^th c (though this may be illusory, as earlier may have been recorded in standardised Latin forms.) Puzzle: the abundance of the –kin forms is out of proportion to the influence and number of Flemings and Picards, and does not follow the known pattern of their geographical settlement. Question: Were the –kin pet-forms “imported from the continent or were thay co-incidentally re-created in England?” [P McClure Nomina 26 (2003) p 98-99] P McClure throws up for consideration the suggestion that Normans may have used Flemish suffixes to mock and belittle those who were trying to ape and ingratiate through the adoption of ‘Norman’ names. In Wales:- “….the English suffix –kin was taken up enthusiastically by the Welsh in the late 13^th and early 14^th centuries. They used it both in forms based on Welsh names, and in a good number of names drawn from the common European stock in use in England. But there appears to have been a change in its use during the 14^th century, and it cannot entirely be accounted for by scribal practice. It was used in the opposite way to that which might have been expected –to refer not to sons, but to fathers, and it came to be felt as a semi-surname, especially in the patronymic context” [Padel 2003, p ] q beware confusion with –skin and -in e.g. *Buckskin
-ken	--
-lin
-man [Old English or Flemish]	Examples: Bateman, Hikeman, Pateman Reaney felt that this was an occupational indicator for ‘servant of’, but the modern interpretation is to discount this (for the Middle English period= 12^th and 13^th centuries) in favour of a pet-form explanation [though ‘servant of’ is an accepted explanation of –man names that arose in the 15^th and 16^th centuries, like Mathewman, Walterman] § Hypothesis 1 The formula ‘Personal name + man’ seems to be limited to post-conquest personal names. In fact, -man is the only Old English hypocoristic suffix to be used with post-conquest personal names [Redmonds 2004a, p ] § Hypothesis 2 Since no other OE suffix was transferred , it is more likely the Middle English usage was adapted from Flanders and area, where the use of –man as a hypocoristic suffix has a long history in the West Germanic languages , e.g. Coleman for Nicolaus was commonplace [ McClure Nomina 26 (2003) p 110-111] There is often insufficient evidence to clearly determine whether –man is being used as a pet-form, occupational compound, or locative or nickname context.
-mon	-monis a W Midlands variant of –man A dialect version that extended from the W and NW Midlands into Cheshire and southern Lancashire “In contrast, north of the Ribble, and on the eastern side of the Pennines, the voicing of the vowel was a “ In the periphery areas e.g. Derbyshire, by the late 14^th c, -mon forms were being displaced by –man” Postles (2007) ‘The north through its names’pp 107-8
-ment
-oc [Old English]
-on [Old French]
-ota	Female diminutive Elisota, Emmota, Magota, Cristelota, Iselota, Emecota, Elcota, Mariota
-ot(e), -ott(e) [Old French]	Annot, Philpot: Philip is often cited as a feminine name in the 14^th century [Redmonds 2004a, p13 ] Exception:Arlott =’lad, youth’
-uc [Old English]	Whittock
-un [Old French]
-us [Old English]	Suggestion: pet-form of Old English dithematic women’s names e.g. Aldus, Edus and Godus, and Old Scandinavian women’s names. “the origin of this suffix is obscure, but in all probability it is a spontaneous hypocoristic formation current chiefly in the north-east Midlands” Smith ‘The place-names of the West Riding of Yorkshire’ Part V p 45 -us - normally affixed to women’s names of Old English or Old Scandinavian origin e.g. Aldus, Edus, Godus, Ricus. Otherwise the Latin nominative ending for male names in official records.
-ut(e), -utt(e)
-Pet forms –Double suffixes -el-in [Old French] -el-et [Old French] -el-ot -en-el -et-in -in-et [Old French] -in-ot	Double Tommelin, Hamlin, Jacklin, Wakelin Perelet Giblett (<Gilbert), Bartlett (<Bartholomew) Parnell (<Per<Peter) Turketine Picknett (Pik-en-et)^- Adnett, Adinet
Taxonomic considerations q should (pet forms+individual suffix) be under 1^st or 2^nd element ? q should compound forms –kinson be classed separately or under –kin or –son, or all? q Should all suffixes be grouped together, then divided by syllables? Are all the above suffixes evidenced as hypocorisms?
Suffixes Personal name + relationship suffix “Vernacular male forms (-son) were deployed much more freely than female forms (-doghter, -wyf, /-wif) which tended more frequently to be construed in Latin than the vernacular. “ As a form of hypercorrection, just for the written record? And remember:- “these name-forms were not assumed by women, but imposed upon them, perhaps rhetorically, by male clerks or male assessors; they were not fashioned by their bearers” [Postles 2001, p40, 41n ]
-daughter, -dochter Ø Suffixes of relationship	Unstable, and no suffixed forms have survived to today. (Though ‘Daughter’ and ‘Daughters’ were recorded in 1881). In 14^th century, Yorkshire and Lancashire, it was fairly common as a byname. The simplex Dafter still exists
-son,-ason,-eson,-ison etc	This form is usually associated with the diminutive form e.g. Wilson, Hanson Williamson, Dawson q Some –sons are in fact ellipses of toponymic –stons or –stone e.g. Beeson from Beeston. q Tyson is the nickname for a firebrand, Dallison fron D’Alencon, Mayson is a form of Mason, Pinson derives from the Old French ‘Finch’
My son, my son ; notes on the –son form The Scandinavian influence debate The –son form derives form the Anglo-Saxon ‘suna, sune, or sunu’. The earliest recorded instance is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle : Hering Hussan sunu in the early 7^th century. Tengvik unearthed over 100 Old English personal names linked to sune + variants, in the period up to 1100, + 24 Scandinavian persona; names + sune/sunu. In the period when second names were not the rule, sunu names were infrequent, but not a great rarity. They became increasingly more frequent in the 11^th century. Between the early 12^th century – late 13^th century, the sunu forms became eclipsed by the filius form, till that in turn was replaced by the –son form “At the level of everyday usage, it seems that there must have been a large degree of continuity with ‘filius’ acting as a translation of ‘sunu’ and then ‘-son’ “ [Wilson 1998, p127 ] Reaney showed that although names ending in son are characteristic of the ‘north’, that this phenomenon was not due to any Scandinavian influence. He cites:- · The continued instability of by-names in the north · Old English –sunu bynames had been more prevalent in the south than the north. · And these were compounded with OE personal names- rarely Scandinavian ones · -son names declined in the 12^th century, but resurged in the 13^th century, and were compounded with Continental-Germanic names He concluded that names in son were not were not inherently ‘Northern’ nor Scandinavian, but became associated with the ‘North’ because of instability and the lateness of the adoption of hereditary surnames [Postles Defining the North: some linguistic evidence’ Northern History 38, 2001, pxx ] ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sörenson’s subtlety Sörenson suggested that the predominance of –son forms in northern England “ resulted from the influence of Scandinavian settlement which obliquely reinstitutionalized the Old English suffix –sunu , since there were approximations between Scandinavian and English patronymic systems..In the south, compounded patronyms and metronyms in the vernacular form, with –son, failed to persist or develop until the later middle ages, perhaps when they were reintroduced by migration, since there was no Scandinavian promotion in that region” [Postles (1994) 'At Sørensen's request : the formation and development of patronyms and metronyms in late medieval Leicestershire and Rutland' Nomina 17, p55] A Middle Way? “Two influences have been advanced to explain this onomastic phenomenon : the more extensive deployment of Middle English combined with the greater flexibility in and of bynames and surnames in the north; and, on the other hand, a persistent Scandinavian influence . Hitherto these two influences have been proposed by some as antithetical. In particular, the influence of Middle English has been propounded to the exclusion of any Scandinavian context. It would seem , nevertheless, that these two concepts should no longer be regarded as independent and exclusive, but as complementary. In particular, the continuity of the –son element in the 12^th century was quite often extended through compounding –son with a Scandinavian name form. Reaney – the proponent of an exclusive Middle English explanation – himself cited Grimmesune and Fornessun in 12^th century Yorkshire” [Postles (2007) ‘The north through its names’ , p62] ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- This –son form was rare before the late 13^th century, but prevalent by 1350. Names were still being formed as late as 1650 (in isolated parts of S. Lancashire). -Son “formations are earlier [in the north] than further south, evident from the first decade of the fourteenth century –and in sporadic cases even earlier- accumulating in the 1320s’ and the 1330’s and widespread by the 1340s.. The appearance further south is first really apparent in the 1330’s , but more particularly in the 1340’s. Moreover the densest concentration in lay subsidies occurred in the Cumberland lay subsidy” Postles (2007) North through its names p52 In Lowland Scotland, and areas of Scandinavian settlement (e.g. Shetland and Orkney), the personal name plus –son form is preferred to Mac- “Many –son names are common to southern Scotland and northern England, but Donaldson, Ferguson, Henderson (from Henry) and Patterson (from Patrick) appear to have originated exclusively in Scotland” ^24 [Hough: 2003, p36] Other examples: Manson (from Magnus), Swanson (from Sveinn) “the combination of personal names with –son was not confined to the most common forenames. Variety is evident. For compounds with the most frequent personal names to have become so extensive by the late middle ages suggests that these earlier formations must have been unstable and disappeared. In all these earlier formations, the personal name elements in the byname or surname were not yet concentrated. An inherent variety thus characterised the formation of northern vernacular patronyms and metronyms in the late fourteenth century. Whilst there was some frequency of compounds on the most popular personal names, there was not the concentration that ensued later” Postles (2007) North through its names p53
-son (elliptical)	Dixon
-son (compound)	Jenkinson
-son (surname form)	Rare examples of –son being added to a surname or byname already in use. E.g. Ballardson, Grayson, Lambson, Spinkson
Cultural
Religious Christian	The surname Christian is mainly IOM or coastal NW counties. Most spellings represent some form of ‘cristen’ rather than the Latin Christianus- e.g Mac Crysten. However the effect of Latinisation has influenced the spelling as Christian, since 1600’s The forename was more frequent as a girl’s name in the 14^th c, with vernacular spellings- Kyrstyan Kyrshen Kyrchyan Kyrchyn found in Yorkshire. [Redmonds 2004, p113]
-Old Testament Mystery Plays (mainly OT)	Abraham Absalom, Adam, Daniel, David, Isaac, Jacob, Jonah, Joseph, Noah, Samson, Tobias Anna, Eve, Hester (Esther), Judith, Sarah, Susanna [From Withycombe, cited in Redmonds 2004 p 147]
-New Testament	John’s rise from a low rank position in the twelfth century to co-equal status with William, within a 100 years, is remarkable. It became popular amongst all social groups. Presumably because of St John, and because other names in Jesus’s family were held to be sacrosanct. Postles (2006) Naming the people of England, p 50
--Saints’ Names -Non-Scriptural -Female e.g. Barbara, Ursula -Male e.g. Austin, Basil, Benedict, Blase, Brice, Christopher, Clement, Cuthbert, Crispin, Denis, Fabian, Gervase, Hilary, Martin, Quentin, Theobald, Valentine, Viel	Jarvis (Gervase) Cobbald (Cuthbert) Tibbald (Theobald)
--Saints’ Names –Scriptural Female Male	“The most important influence on girls’ names after the Conquest was that of the virgin Saints, Agnes, Margaret, Julian and Cecile, and these were popular in every part of the country”.[.Redmonds 2004a, p39] also quite popular were the female saints- Beatrice and Katherine Metronymics derived from these names = The fullest development of the use of saint’s names for women seem to have been in the 13^th c, but this did not precede the use of saint’s names for men which had existed by 1180“ It does, nevertheless, seem that in the thirteenth century a greater proportion of women bore saints’ names than men. The stimuli to this association may have been first the greater recognition of women’s religious experiences in the twelth century and secondly the increase in the number of female saints canonized by the thirteenth century, associated with the particular qualities of nurturing, caring and virginity” Postles ‘Naming the People of England’ p85 Paul (> surnames Pawle, Polson etc) The name Paul is missing from most Poll Tax returns 1377-81. It remained an uncommon given name up to the late 18^th century- though individual pockets of high concentration existed e.g. Morley Wapentake, Yorks. [Redmonds (2004a) p 149]
Non-Religious
-Classical Names	lRedmonds argues that that names of classical antiquity were not adopted to any extent – there are very few in the poll tax returns. Surnames derived from classical names are therefore rare. Sabin < Sabina – limited to Oxon (also variant Damesabine): source-McKinley (Banbury RDU =1881 census) Cassandra > surnames Cass/Casson (?). Though Cass is strong in Yorkshire: Casson in Cumberland Achilles and Hercules are v rare as surnames, Aurelius (S Wales), Julius (E Anglia), Caesar (Surrey) Hannibal more widespread (but variant of Honeyball?) Alexander very widespread lPostles has looked at female names in wills 1258-1300, and feels they are commoner than supposed, for women. He cites: Bona Felicia, Letitia (Letia), Idonea, Sibilla , Orabilla, Marsalia, Sabina, Floria, Cassandra, Constancia, Celestria, Claricia, Salerna, Tiffania, Meliora, Florenci, Amabilia, Castanea, Basilia, Dyamanda, Anastasia Postles ‘Naming the people of England’ p 84-85
By Gender
Women’s names -Cross-gender names	Post-Conquest After the Conquest, it is noticeable that any change to the adoption of the new name forms was slower amongst women than men. Cecily Clark suggested that this was due to the fact that the Normans, Bretons etc did not bring many women with them. Hence they took their wives from Anglo-Saxon society, and their names continued as role-models for others. By the 13^th c. Although female names became concentrated to a smallish number of heavily-used names, unconventional (florid, ornate) names still existed at the margins (noticeably more than for men). These unconventional names seem to be more associated with the upper layers of society, rather than the unfree peasantry. And these names reached their peak in the 13^th c., disappearing by the later middle ages. “At the margin, female names contained elements of creativity, lexical meaning, and recovery of names of classical antiquity. We might attribute this difference to the impulse to name male children within the kinship as a patrilinear strategy. Equally, however, this difference of expectation of males and females allowed parents to indulge in recognition of female children as individuals…male offspring to recognize the obligation to the land and family; and female siblings to be associated with particular “virtues” ‘ Postles ‘Naming the People of England’ p 88 Elicia (Elisia, Elycia), Nicholaa, Laurencia, Egidia (female form of Egidius (Giles)), Benedicta, Jacobina and Phillipa. Philip, Thomas and Nicholas could all be applied to girls, and hence might produce metronymics
-Welsh female	Gwenlan<Gwenllian Gainor<Gaenor
-English female	Edith –of Old English origin- continued to be popular, even in the late 14^th c.
Source Language
Based on Reaney- so needs bringing up to date a. Old English [OE] b. Old Scandinavian [OS] c. Old Danish [OD] d. Celtic-Old Cornish [OC] e. Celtic-Old Welsh f. Celtic-Old Breton [OBret] g. Celtic-Gaelic h. Old Irish i. Continental Germanic j. Old French k. Old Norman French l. Old Frisian m. Old German n. Romance o. Greek p. Latin q. Hebrew r. Aramaic	Alan, Brian
References 1. Cecily Clark Cambridge History of the English Language Vol 2 2. Hough (2003) ‘Scottish surnames’ in The Edinburgh Companion to Scots 3. McClure (2003) ‘The kinship of Jack : 1’ Nomina 26 4. McClure (2005) ‘The kinship of Jack : 1’ Nomina 28 5. McKinley (1977) Surnames of Oxfordshire 6. Mckinley (1990) A History of British Surnames 7. Mckinley (1991) ‘Medieval Latin translations of English personal bynames: their value for surname history’ Nomina 14 8. Padel (2003) ‘Names in -kin in medieval Wales’ in  Names, time and place : essays in memory of Richard McKinley	9. Redmonds (2004a) Christian names in local and family history 10. Redmonds (2004b) Names and History 11. Rowlands (1996) The Surnames of Wales 12. Rowlands (2006) The distribution of surnames in Wales Nomina 29 13. Postles (2001) ‘Defining the North: some linguistic evidence ‘ Northern History 38 14. Turville-Petrie (1998) ‘Patronymics in the Thirteenth Century’ Nomina 21 15. Wilson (1998) The Means of Naming: a social history

◄ ►